工程管理专业外文文献及翻译

本科毕业设计

外文文献及译文

文献、资料题目：Changing roles of the clients

Architects and contractors

Through BIM

文献、资料来源：Engineering, Construction, Archi-

tectual Management

文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2010.2 院 （部）： 管理工程学院 专 业： 班 级： 姓 名： 学 号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2012.6.3

山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文

外文文献：

Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIM

Rizal Sebastian

TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract

Purpose – This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes. Design/methodology/approach – Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.

Findings – One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.

Originality/value – This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects. Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planning

Paper type General review

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山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文

1. Introduction

Hospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.

The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user’s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008). There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for

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an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.

Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.

This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified. 2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approaches

A hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be

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included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.

The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.

In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).

The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.

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The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).

A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.

The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium. A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.

In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the

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building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum client’s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client’s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).

Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).

Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).

The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until

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the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.

3. Changing roles through BIM application

Building information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).

BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the

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building performance, including the life-cycle cost.

To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors (Kiviniemi et al., 2008).

The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.

Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:

 the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the

deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;

 the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication

protocols, task planning, and risk management;

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 and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of

communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.

Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).

How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confirms: ‘This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’ (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009). 4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIM

In The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The

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preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.

The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:

 the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;  the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;

 the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;

 the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the

future; and

 the roles and tasks of the model manager.

The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.

The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.

The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:

 using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building

actors, and the user participation in design;

 facilitating optimal information accessibility and exchange for a high  consistency of the drawings and documents across disciplines and phases;

 integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation,

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and planning;

 interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and

specifications;

 reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; and  optimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installations

and equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.

The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.

The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.

Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. Using BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much

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better insight in these aspects over the life-cycle period. The life-cycle sustainability criteria are included in the assignments for the design teams. Multidisciplinary designers and engineers are asked to collaborate more closely and to interact with the end-users to address life-cycle requirements. However, ensuring the building actors to engage in an integrated collaboration to generate sustainable design solutions that meet the life-cycle performance expectations is still difficult. These actors are contracted through a traditional procurement method. Their tasks are specific, their involvement is rather short-term in a certain project phase, their responsibilities and liabilities are limited, and there is no tangible incentive for integrated collaboration.

From the current progress of both projects, it can be observed that the type and structure of BIM relies heavily on the choice for BIM software applications. Revit Architecture and Revit Structure by Autodesk are selected based on the argument that it has been widely used internationally and it is compatible with AutoCAD, a widely known product of the same software manufacturer. The compatibility with AutoCAD is a key consideration at MMC since the drawings of the existing buildings were created with this application. These 2D drawings were then used as the basis to generate a 3D model with the BIM software application. The architectural model generated with Revit Architecture and the structural model generated by Revit Structure can be linked directly. In case of a change in the architectural model, a message will be sent to the structural engineer. He can then adjust the structural model, or propose a change in return to the architect, so that the structural model is always consistent with the architectural one.

Despite the attempt of the design team to agree on using the same software application, the MEP consultant is still not capable to use Revit; and therefore, a conversion of the model from and to Revit is still required. Another weakness of this “closed approach”, which is dependent to the use of the same software applications, may appear in the near future when the project further progresses into the construction phase. If the contractor uses another software application, considerable extra work will be needed to make the model creted during the design phase to be compatible for use in the construction phase. Since traditional procurement method is used, this problem may appear just after tender, which means there will not be much time and resource to re-create or re-build the model. The contractor’s ICT system and applications are unknown before the tender because no contractor is yet involved in the project. A particular attention in hospital

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building projects is given on the development of object libraries. Since a very large number of complex objects are typical to hospital buildings (e.g. installations, equipments, operation rooms, special facilities), the effective handling of the object library determines the efficiency of the design process. Since the approach to BIM still depends to specific software applications instead of an open-source approach, the openness, accessibility, and extension possibility of the object libraries may rather be limited. 5. Conclusions

In the midst of the changing real estate strategy in the healthcare sector and the changing roles in hospital building projects, integrated collaboration and BIM are highly required. Based on the analysis of the literature, previous research and case studies, the five success factors for integrated collaboration using BIM can be identified as “POWER” that comprises: (1) Product information sharing (P). (2) Organisational roles synergy (O). (3) Work processes coordination (W). (4) Environment for teamwork (E). (5) Reference data consolidation (R).

There is much research on how to release the power of collaboration through the changing roles of the client, architect, engineer, and contractor within a collaborative process using BIM. However, the management of the collaborative processes and the implementation of BIM as ICT support in the real practice are still suboptimal. The main findings from the case studies in the Netherlands can be concluded as follows. In contrary to the ambition to endorse a life-cycle strategy to manage healthcare real estate effectively and efficiently, traditional procurement method is still largely used in hospital building projects. Although many attempts are made to realise an integrated collaboration, the contractual limitations of the roles and responsibilities of the building parties in the traditional procurement method hinder the optimal implementation of a performance-based honorarium system (a system which may stimulate the building actors to continuously assess the life-cycle consequences of their design, engineering, and construction solutions). The decisions on ICT solutions for BIM are often not adequately grounded in the business and real estate strategies of the healthcare institutions. In the current situation, a “closed approach” that depends on a certain software application is still used. Consequently, much time is

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needed to define the structure of object and data modelling at the initiation of the project while changes must be enforced in a later phase as new actors with different ICT systems work with the model.

The healthcare sector serves as an appropriate case, but in terms of BIM development it is not an isolated case. The knowledge of the collaborative processes with BIM support can be generalised to the wider construction sector. Collaboration processes in a building project cannot be standardised and neither can BIM. BIM is not a ready-made solution; it has to be tailored for each project. The collaboration framework, the modelling approach, the structure and level of detail of the model, and the supporting tools have to be shaped in accordance to the project complexity and the objective of the involved building actors.

References

AIA California Council (2007), A Working Definition – Integrated Project Delivery, McGraw Hill Construction, New York, NY. Bratton,

J.

(2009),

“Making

the

transition

from

CAD

to

BIM”,

EC&M

Magazine,http://ecmweb.com/design_engineering/bim_switching_benefits_0301/ (accessed 21 January 2010).

Chao-Duivis, M. (2009), “The implications of working with BIM”, Journal of Building Law, Vol. 44 No. 3 (in Dutch).

ConsensusDOCS (2008), Building Information Modelling (BIM) Protocol Addendum 301, McGraw-Hill Construction, New York, NY.

Dawood, N. and Sikka, S. (2008), “Measuring the effectiveness of 4D planning as a valuable communication tool”, ITCon, Vol. 13.

Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport (2008), WTZi Regulation no. MC-U-2827900, Sdu, The Hague (in Dutch).

InPro (2009), Business Concepts, Project Report D9b, InPro, Gothenburg.

InPro (2009), Framework for Collaboration, Project Report D16b, InPro, Gothenburg.

Joint Contracts Tribunal (2007), Deciding on the Appropriate JCT Contract, Sweet & Maxwell, London.

Kiviniemi, A., Tarandi, V., Karlshøj, J., Bell, H. and Karud, O.J. (2008), Review of the

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Development and Implementation of IFC Compatible BIM, Erabuild, Espoo.

National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS (2007), National Building Information Modeling Standard, Version 1: Part 1, National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, Washington, DC. Prins, M. (1992), “Flexibility and cost in the design process: a design decision support model”, PhD thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven.

Sebastian, R., Haak, W. and Vos, E.J. (2009), “BIM application for integrated design andengineering in small-scale housing development: a pilot project in The Netherlands”,Future Trends in Architectural Management Proceedings of International Symposium CIB-W096 in Tainan, 2-3 November, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan.

van Reedt Dortland, M. (2009), “Mitigating uncertainties in capital investments of healthcare real estate”, working PhD research proposal, University of Twente, Enschede.

World Health Organization (2000), Why do Health Systems Matter?, WHO, Paris, Report.

Further reading

Sebastian, R. (2007), Managing Collaborative Design, Eburon, Delft.

Sebastian, R. and Prins, M. (2009), “Collaborative architectural design management”, in Emmitt, S., Otter, A. and den Prins, M. (Eds), Architectural Management: International Researchand Practice, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

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中文译文：

通过BIM改变业主、设计师、承包商的角色

Rizal Sebastian，荷兰建筑环境与地球科学研究院，代尔夫特省，荷兰

摘要

目的——本文旨在介绍一种具有实际意义的基于文献和案例研究的建筑信息模型(BIM)。它试图解决BIM和重组的过程和角色在医院建设项目中应用的必要性。这种类型的项目很复杂是由于复杂的功能与技术要求,做出决定涉及大量的涉众,和长期的开发过程。

设计/方法/途径——通过文献研究和参考欧洲正在进行的研究项目InPro,框架集成协作和使用BIM进行了分析。

调查结果——其中一个主要发现是识别为一个成功写作使用BIM的主要因素，这可以被视为“POWER”:产品信息共享(P),组织角色协同(O),工作流程协调(W)、环境对于团队(E),然后参考数据整合(R)。

独创性/价值——本文有助于在改变所需角色和过程开发与经营可持续建筑环境支持集成的ICT的框架和工具的科学和实践。介绍了先进的欧洲研究项目和一些真实的应用于医院建设项目BIM的真实案例。

关键字：欧洲、医院、荷兰、工程施工、响应的灵活性，项目计划 论文类型：综述 1 导言

医院建设项目非常关键，涉及到重要投资且建设周期长。医院建设项目也非常复杂，因为涉及卫生安全、特殊设备和大量数据的处理。建设过程是动态的，包括迭代阶段和中间的变化。转移议程、角色和责任的许多建筑相关人员都积极参与，比如：医疗保健机构，国家和地方，项目开发商，金融机构，建筑师，承建商，顾问，设施管理，设备制造商和供应商。这些建设项目的影响很大，随着医学、社会、科技的发展，医疗也在迅速变化。在不同国家之间同样如此（世界医疗组织2000）。比如在荷兰，因为2008年推出的荷兰卫生，卫生保健部门的建设项目组织方式经历了巨大的变革。

迅速变化的环境要求一个建筑在其生命周期中具有灵活性。出于整合生命周期的考虑，在建筑设计、施工技术和设施的管理策略，多学科的合作是必要的。医疗建设项目建立全面合作的尝试在实践中仍面临着严重问题，如预算超支、延时、灵活性带来的次优的质量、

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用户不满和能源效率。显而易见的是，在这些问题背后的最重要原因是缺乏一个建设项目的不同阶段所涉及的角色之间的沟通和协调。不同的利益相关者之间的沟通变得非常重要，因为每个利益相关者具有不同的技能。因此，复杂的设计图纸和文件信息的提取，解释和通信的过程往往耗时和困难。先进的可视化技术，如4D规划，有巨大的潜力可以提高项目团队的沟通效率和项目成员的解释能力。然而，作为一个有效的沟通工具的使用仍然有限，并没有充分探讨(Dawood and Sikka, 2008)。在信息传递和集成也有其他方面的障碍，例如：许多现有的信息和通信技术系统不支持的数据和结构的先决条件是不同的建筑角色或学科之间的有效合作的开放性。

建筑信息模型（BIM）为事前问题的解决提供了整体方法。因此，BIM是越来越多地使用信息和通信技术作为一个在复杂的建设项目的支持。一个有效的多学科协作，最佳使用BIM的支持，需要不断变化的客户，建筑师和承包商的角色，新的合同关系;和重新组织的合作进程。不幸的是，在实践方面仍然存在一些差距，比如怎样使建筑参与者们再变换的角色中有效合作、改进并利用BIM作为一个最佳的信息和通信技术的协作支持。基于文献回顾和案例研究，本文全面回顾了建筑信息建模（BIM）。在下一部分将重点分析全面合作框架和BIM的应用，这部分研究会基于文献和来自欧洲的研究项目inpro。随后，通过观察在荷兰进行的两个试点项目，将研究通过IBM的应用，客户、建筑师和承包商之间的角色转换。总之，应用IBM的统一协作，其成功因素和障碍都是确定的。 2.通过统一协作和生命周期设计的角色变化方法

一个医院建设项目涉及不同的参与人员，角色和知识领域。在荷兰，因为新的医疗，医院建设项目中的客户，建筑师和承包商的角色变化是不可避免的。以前，医疗机构根据医疗机构法（WTZi）需要获得新的建设项目和重大整修许可证和建筑许可证。许可证由荷兰卫生部颁发，医疗机构从获得财政支持。2008年以来，管理医院建筑项目和房地产所有权的法令已经生效。在新法律中，为医院下建设项目许可证不是强制的，也不是能获得的（荷兰健康法，福利与体育，2008）。这种变化从国家导向方面给与了更多的自由，也分配了更多的责任给医疗机构对其房地产融资和管理。新意味着医疗机构对建设项目和房地产所有权进行全面负责管理和资金拨付。将不再得到单独的医疗保健设施拨款，但将包括对医疗服务的费用。这意味着，医疗机构必须通过他们的服务，他们对房地产的投资赚回来。这项新旨在刺激医疗建筑的设计，采购和管理，这将有助于有效和高效的初级卫生保健服务的可持续创新。

这个建设项目和房地产管理的新战略找到了集成的协作方式。以保证在施工期间，使

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用和维护的可持续性，最终用户、设备管理人员、承建商及专门承建商需要在规划和设计过程中涉及。新战略的影响，反映在建筑者角色的转变和新的采购方法上。

在传统的采购方法中，建筑师和设计工程师改进设计和细节。然后，客户端（医疗机构）给卫生部发送申请获得建筑许可证和财政支持。在此之后，选择承包商的招标过程中，强调为寻找最低价格的投标人。施工期间，变化往往发生由于施工问题和客户需求的新要求。由于技术的复杂性、决策的高水平，从开始直到交付医院建设项目全过程可能需要长达十几年的时间。交付后，医疗机构完全负责设施的运作。重新设计和变化也发生在使用阶段，以应付新的功能和医学界的发展。(van Reedt Dortland, 2009)

综合采购描绘了有关各方在建筑项目上的新的合同之间的关系。在综合采购项目中，顾客只跟建筑施工方保持契约关系，而与建筑设计师和承包方之间没关系 ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007) 。而在需求方面的客户端任务和职业群体之间的传统边界变得模糊，因为建筑师，顾问公司，承包商，分包商和供应商都在建设过程中的供应方的立场。这样的配置使建筑师，工程师和承包商在一个非常不同的位置，影响不仅自己的角色，而且他们的职责，任务和与客户，用户，团队和其他利益相关者沟通。

从传统采购法到综合采购法的过渡需要供给双方当事人心态上的一个转变。它是为客户和承包商能有一个公平和公开的合作，使他们都可以最佳利用他们的能力。综合协作的有效性也取决于客户的能力和战略，以组织创新的招标程序。(Sebastian et al., 2009)

一个新的挑战出现在案件的定位的一名建筑师合作伙伴承包商。对于建筑师同一个承包商达成合作伙伴关系，一个重要的问题是如何确保建筑的价值观的实现，以及通过高效施工过程来实现的创新过程。在另一起案件中,建筑师可以站在客户端战略顾问的角色而不是设计师。在这种情况下,建筑师的责任是将客户的需求和愿望翻译成建筑值将其体现在设计规范中,并评估承包商的提议反对这个。在这些新角色中,建筑师拥有作为代表利益的服务商的责任，掌握托管人的客户价值和托管人的设计模型。

从传统到综合采购方法的过渡也带来了对付款方案的影响。在传统的建筑过程中，建筑师的酬劳通常是基于项目花费的百分比，这可能仅意味着这个建筑花费的越多，酬劳将越高。工程师基于设计的复杂程度和任务的强度来接受酬劳。一个高度复杂的建筑将造成大量的返工设计，就红利而言，这点对于工程师是有利的。一个传统的承包商通常可获得委员会根据招标建造建筑最低的价格满足给定的最小规格客户端。

交付之后,承包商不再负责建筑的长期使用。在传统的采购方式中，所有的风险是置于客户一方的。

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在综合采购方法中，付款方式是根据所获得的建筑性能;因此,付款是非对抗性的。自从建筑师、工程师和承包商对建筑的设计和质量拥有广泛的责任，付款是在这段时间内连接这座建筑的测量系统的功能和技术性能的纽带。酬劳变成一种达到最理想质量的激励。如果这个项目的参与者成功交付一个超过最低客户的需求高附加值建筑物,他们将根据客户的额外所得而获得一笔奖金。这种透明度的水平也是可以提高的。如果利益相关者同意共享信息和其详细程，则打开账簿记录会是一个优秀的工具（InPro,2009)

接下来采用综合采购方法，医院建设项目的新房地产策略对创新产品开发和生命周期的设计方法发表评论。一个可持续的业务投资案例和医院大楼的开发依赖动态的生命周期管理，它包括考虑和分析建筑生命周期成本随时间的发展的变化(投资/初始成本、运营成本、和物流成本)。相比传统生命周期成本法，动态的生命周期管理包含一个转变,即从只关注于专注最大限度地减少成本到总收益最大化的获得。其中一个关于成功实现动态生命周期管理的一个决定性因素是可持续设计的建筑和建筑的组件，这意味着设计携带者足够的灵活性来适应长时期产生的变化（发表于1992）。

设计基于生命周期管理的原则影响了建筑师的角色，因为他需要了解关于使用场景和相关财务安排、不断变化的社会环境和物质环境和新技术。设计需要集成人活动和业务的战略时间。在这种背景下，建筑师通过组织的、当地的和全球的金融、经营、健康和安全、环境等等来联合自己的设计策略。

结合的过程和产品的创新，不断变换角色的项目参与者可以通过集成项目交付或IPD（美国建筑师协会，加利福尼亚议会，2007）来适应。IPD是一种集合参与人员、体系、业务结构和实习于一个过程，该过程能够通过设计、制造、建设的所有阶段，综合人才并协作所有参与者的见解以减少浪费、提高效率。IPD原则可以被应用于多种合同安排。IPD团队包含的成员将远远超过三位一体的建筑师、工程师和承包商。至少,尽管,一个集成项目应该包含一个客户,建筑师,承包商，工程师之间的紧密合作，但主要承包商最终负责项目的建设,从早期的设计直到项目交接。IPD成功的关键是集合一个可以齐心协力并工作高效的团队。IPD是建立在写作上的。因此，如果参与者分享应用共同点价值观和目标，IPD才能成功。

3.通过BIM应用改变角色

BIM包括ICT框架和可以支持基于生命周期设计的的方法的综合协作的工具。BIM是一个数字表示的物理和功能特性的设施。这样，它作为一个为形成一个可信赖的生命周期从开始向前的决策基础服务的共享知识资源（国家建筑科学研究院NIBS，2007）。BIM促进不同

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时间和地点的协同工作。一个BIM的基本前提是在BIM系统中把不同股东在不同生命周期阶段插入、提取、升级或修改信息来支持和反映利益相关者的角色。BIM的最终形式，作为一个共享的数字表示建立在具有互用性的开放标准，可以成为从设计团队向承包商和分包商，然后向客户端的虚拟的信息模型(Sebastian et al. , 2009)。

BIM不同于之前所知的计算机辅助设计（CAD）。BIM会比生成数字图纸（2D或3D）的应用程序更进一步。BIM是一个综合模型，其中所有过程和产品信息都结合在一起存储、阐述，并交互式地分发到所有相关的项目参与者。作为一个涉及所有成员贯穿整个项目生命周期的主要模型，BIM随着项目的发展而开发。使用BIM，被提议的设计方案将被评估是否符合顾客的要求是否满足预期的建筑设计效果。BIM的功能支持设计过程向延伸，包括：三维可视化和细节,冲突检测、材料时间表,计划、成本估计,生产和物流信息,和竣工文件。在施工过程中，BIM会支持之间的通信建设网站,工厂和办公室的设计——这是至关重要的一个有效的和高效的预制和装配过程以及防止或解决问题相关的不可预见的错误或修改。当该建筑在使用中,可以使用BIM结合智能建筑系统提供和维护大楼的最新信息性能,包括生命周期成本。为在AEC/FM工业中合作运用BIM的更高效的信息交换中发挥全部潜能，高质量的开放国际标准和这些标准的高质量的安装使用必须被替换。IFC开放标准是普遍认为是高质量的,是被广泛实现的在软件。不幸的是，这个认证程序允许低质量的的实现进行身份认证，并且本质上呈现它是在IFC实际使用中没用的身份认证。IFC兼容BIM实际上是用更少的人工为建筑师和承包商起草，为工程师显示为相同的作用。最近的一项调查显示，CAD仍然是用于设计工作的主要技术形（约占60%），而此时BIM被约20%的设计师和约10%的工程师和承包商使用(Kiviniemiet al. , 2008)。

应用程序支持一个最优的BIM交叉学科和交叉阶段合作，在项目参与者角色和关系上打开了一个新的维度。几个最相关的问题是:新角色的模型管理员;访问权和知识产权的协议(IPR);根据合同类型的责任和付款安排根据的类型和相关的集中采购;开放国际标准的使用。协同工作使用BIM要求建立一个拥有ICT以及施工工艺技术的新的专家的角色的模型管理员 (InPro,2009)。该模型管理员处理系统,以及项目人员。他为BIM功能提和维护供技术解决方案，管理信息流，提高利益相关者的ICT技能。模型管理员并不能决定在设计和工程的解决方案和组织程序,但他的角色在整个链中的决策的重点是:

 BIM的发展，模型的结构和细节水平的定义，相关BIM工具的调度，例如，模型检查,

合并,和冲突检测;

 分摊协作方法,特别是决策和通信协议、任务规划、和风险管理;以及

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 信息管理方面，依据数据流和数据储存、鉴定沟通的错误,和决策或过程(重新)跟

踪。

对于法律和组织问题,一个实际的问题是:“在什么情况下知识产权(IPR)协同工作使用BIM不同于知识产权在传统的团队合作。就结合作品而言,知识产权每个元素都依附于它的创造者。尽管看起来是一个完全集成的设计、BIM实际却是由一个组合的作品/元素;例如: ,是由建筑师完成建筑物的轮廓设计, 由电气承包商设计电机系统,等等。因此,一旦BIM结合起来工作,知识产权的使用将类似于原来的传统团队合作。使用BIM作者注册功能实际上可能会使它更容易追踪的知识产权(Chao-Duivis,2009)。

怎样用BIM协同工作，影响合同的关系？一方面，协同合作使用BIM不必要改变在合同中的责任位置，也不需要承担联合合同的义务。BIM附件的一般原则证实：“这并不需要招致或需要一个合同关系的重新构建或转换项目参与者之间的风险除了特别要求的协议附录和其附件” (ConsensusDOCS, 2008)另一方面，改变条款的付款方案是可以预见的。写作过程使用BIM将导致活动从早期设计阶段转变。很多，如果不是全部很多,活动详细的工程和规范阶段会进行早期阶段。这意味着设计阶段的重要支付,可能占到40%设计的成本,却不能再指望。因为建造工作同设计工作是同时的,一个新的付款的比例在早期设计阶段是必要的(Chao-Duivis, 2009)。

4.回顾运用BIM的正在进行的亿元建设项目

在荷兰，在医院建设项目中不断变化的角色是策略一部分，它旨在达成一种可持续的真正的财产来回应改变的医疗保健。参考之前的文献和研究，影响该换角色成功的主要因素可以归为以下几点：一个综合采购方法的实现和一个持续合作的过程的生命周期设计方法；BIM结构和知识产权的协议；和集成的角色模型管理员。前面的部分已经讨论了如何有效解决这些因素的概念性观点。当前部分观察两个实际的项目和比较实际的实践与分别概念视图。

在案例研究中被观察到的问题是:

 选中的采购方法和在这个方法中的相关角色；  生命周期设计方法的实现；

 BIM应用于项目中的类型、结构和功能；

 在数据共享的开放性和传输模型和BIM在将来的使用；  以及角色和模型管理者的任务。

在圣内梅亨大学医学院（简称为UMC）和Maxima医学中心（简称为MMC）可以观察到试

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山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文

点医院建设项目使用BIM。在UMC，奈美亨市的牙科医院的新建项目一直致力于成为应用BIM的典范。在MMC，BIM是用于为Veldhoven的母婴中心和医学模拟中心设计新的建筑。

第一个案例为一个在圣内梅亨大学医学中心（UMC）的案例。UMC不仅仅是一个医院，它及医疗服务、教育和研究于一体。有8500名以上的在职员工和3000名以上的学生在这里工作。作为一项创新性的地产策略；UMC考虑运用BIM于建设项目。牙科学院的新发展和周围的建筑物在奈梅亨Kapittelweg已被选中作为一个试点项目收集实用知识和与BIM协作流程支持的经验。

通过在UMC建筑项目使用BIM的技术的目的主要归纳如下：

 使用3D可视化效果来加强建设者之间的沟通与合作，和用户参与设计；  促进信息的集合和交换以达到与图纸和合同文件原则与实施阶段的一致性；  结合建筑设计和结构分析、能量分析,成本评估和计划;  交互设计解决方案和评估项目的要求及规格；  通过设计中的冲突检测减少重新设计/再造成本；

 以及，通过登记医疗设备和器械、固定和可移动的家具、产品、输出规范和操作数

据来加强设施管理。

第二个案例是Maxima医疗中心的项目。Diaconessenhuis在埃因霍温和圣Veldhoven Joseph医院的合并形成了大型医院MMC。每年，3400员工为MMC的访客和病人提供医疗服务。医院在Veldhoven大规模的扩建工程是医院房地产策略的一部分。一个医疗模拟中心和母婴医疗中心是这个扩建项目中最重要的新设施。设计使用了3D造型与几个BIM功能。

这个结果来自于两个案例和如下的分析。UMC和MMC都选择了一种传统的采购方式，即客户直接与建筑师、结构工程师和设备、电气、管道顾问等（MEP）设计团队订立合同。一旦设计和详细的规范都已完成,选择一个承包商将是一个投标过程。尽管的选择传统的方法,但是已经进行了很多尝试仔细和更有效的多学科协作。UMC专注于在设计开始前的与建筑师、结构师和MEP顾问的相关的长期准备阶段。这个准备阶段的目的是创造一个共同的愿景以最佳的方式进行合作的使用BIM作为一个ICT支持。这些准备阶段的结果是：一份定义项目共同目的的文件和合作工作过程以及一份承诺建设参与者合作的半正式的协议。除了UMC、MMC选定的建筑公司的内部工程部门。因此，发生在建筑师和结构师之间的合作可以在一家公司用同样的应用软件。对于生命周期设计的方法,主要关注了生命周期成本、维护的需求,和设施管理。使用BIM，两家公司都打算通过生命周期期间在这些方面获得更好的洞察力。生命周期的可持续性标准都包含在设计团队的任务中。多学科的设计师和工程师

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山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文

被要求更紧密地合作,并且与最终用户互动,以解决生命周期的需求。然而，保证项目参与者致力于协调合作来创造持续的设计成果以满足生命周期的预期成果是很困难的。这些工作人员通过传统承包采购方法订立合同。他们的任务是具体的,他们的参与在一个特定项目阶段中是短时期的,他们的职责和责任都是有限的,而没有切实的激励集成的协作。

从目前的两个项目的进展,可以观察到的类型和BIM结构严重依赖对BIM软件应用程序的选择。Revit建筑和结构选择Revit Autodesk的论证的基础上的在国际上得到了广泛的应用,这是兼容与AutoCAD,一种广泛已知产品相同的软件制造商。与AutoCAD的兼容性是一个MMC的重要考虑，因为现存图纸基本上都是用该款软件制作的。因为这些二维图纸将被BIM软件用作生成三维模型的基础。用Revit Architecture生成的建筑模型和结构模型将被直接连接。如果一个建筑模型改变，一个信息将被传送至结构工程师。他可以调整结构模型来适应或是提出一个变更来回应建筑师，以保证结构模型总是与建筑模型相一致。尽管设计团队试着同意使用相同的软件应用程序,但MEP顾问仍不能够使用Revit;因此,和Revit之间转换模型仍然是必需的。这种“封闭方法”的另一个弱点是，它依赖使用相同的应用软件，在当项目更加进步的建设阶段的时候将会出现。如果承包商使用另一个软件应用程序,大量的额外工作需要让模型在设计阶段和构建阶段兼容。因为传统的采购方式使用,这个问题可能出现在投标后,这就意味着不会有很多时间和资源来重建或重做模型。承包商的ICT系统和应用程序在投标前是未知的，因为还没有承包商进入这个项目。特别注意医院建设项目是给定的发展对象库。因为大量的复杂的对象是典型的医院建筑(例如安装、设备、操作的房间、特殊设施)因此，能否有效处理对象库决定了设计过程的效率。由于BIM的方法仍就依赖于专业应用软件而非开放资源，可访问性、和扩展的可能性对象库可能相当有限。 5.结论

在改变房地产策略在医疗保健行业和更改角色在医院建设项目过程中,整合协作和BIM是非常需要的。基于文献分析，先前的调查和案例研究，五个综合协作使用BIM成功因素可以定义为“POWER”，包含： （1） 产品信息共享（P） （2） 组织角色协调（O） （3） 工作过程合作（W） （4） 团队工作环境（E） （5） 参考数据整合（R）

对于怎样通过运用BIM合作过程改换客户、建筑师、工程师、承包商的角色发挥合作能

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山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文

量这方面有许多研究。然而，合作过程管理和BIM作为ICT的支持在真正的实践中仍然是次优的。主要结果从在荷兰进行的案例研究可以得出如下。相反，为追求认证一个生命周期策略来管理医疗房地产是有效的，传统采购方法始终大量应用于医院建筑建设。尽管做了许多尝试来意识到一个综合合作，但是合同的使建设方在传统采购方式中阻碍了基于报酬体系的最佳实施效果(一个系统可能激发项目参与者要持续不断地评估他们的生命周期设计,工程,和建设解决方案)。BIM对ICT的决定往往不充分建立在商业和房地产策略的医疗保健机构上。在当前形式下，取决于一个特定应用软件的“封闭方法”仍然在使用。因此,大多数时候是需要定义的结构的对象和数据建模的启动项目变更的时候, 随着新员工用不同的ICT系统的工作模型，必须严格执行在后面的阶段。

医疗保障部分作为一个合适的案例，但就BIM开发而言这不是一个孤立的案例。用BIM支持协同合作的知识能够普遍应用与更广泛的建筑行业。BIM和协作流程在建设项目中不能被标准化。BIM不是一个现成的解决方案;它必须为每个客户量身定制的项目。协作框架,造型方法,结构的细节层次模型,支持工具不得不依照项目的复杂性和建设人员的目标与其保持一致。

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