英语语义学论文

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Abstract：As we all know, preposition is one of the most active word classes with vital significance in both the English and Chinese languages. “Cong” is used frequently in modern Chinese; and in English, “from” is used frequently, too. Having a good master of the respective semantic functions and making cognitive semantic studies of the symmetries and asymmetries of their respective semantic functions without no doubt enable English learners to apply theory into practice and acquire the English usage well.

Key words: English preposition “from”, Chinese preposition “cong”, cognitive,

semantic function

摘要：总所周知，英汉两种语言中，介词均属于最重要的虚词之一。“从”和 “from” 分别是英语与汉语中常用的高频介词。分别对这两个介词语义功能的有效掌握和对它们语义功能的对称性以及非对称性的认知研究无疑能使英语学习者将理论运用到实际中，并很好掌握其用法。

关键词：英语介词“from”，中文介词“从”，认知，语义功能

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A Cognitive Semantic Comparative

Study of Chinese Preposition “Cong” and English Preposition “from” 1．Introduction

According to Quirk et al. (1985:657-659), in the most general terms, a preposition expresses a relation between two entities, one being that represented by the prepositional complement, the other by another part of the sentence. Dai Weidong and He Zhaoxiong(2002) state that the English prepositions have been referred to as being closed class words since brand-new words are not usually added to them so that all their members can be enumerated. It is also the same case with the Chinese prepositions. Curme(1931) tells us that the English language contains 286 prepositions in total, but in Chinese the frequently used prepositions are no more than 30. As is acclaimed by Svartvic (1998), almost in any English text, prepositions occur as often as in one word in every eight. Though small in number, English together with Chinese prepositions are of vital importance. The English preposition “from” and the Chinese preposition “cong” are two most commonly seen and frequently used prepositions in English and Chinese respectively. Having a better understanding of their dictionary meanings and making a comprehensive cognition of their differences never fail to enable learners to master the English language on a deeper level.

2. The Respective Semantic Functions of English Preposition “from” and Chinese Preposition “Cong”

2.1 The Semantic Functions of English Preposition “from”

In accordance with the explanations of the entry “from” in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Sally Wehmeier, 1997), the English preposition “from” possesses fourteen explanations which can be divided into the following seven semantic functions.

The first and foremost function is to show where somebody or something starts. It can be the starting point of anything, such as a period of time, a place, a resource, a limitation, a range and a development. For example:

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(1) from adulthood （从成年起）

(2) Has the train from Bristol arrived? （从布里斯托尔开来的火车到了没有？）

(3) Bees are going from flower to flower.（蜜蜂正逐花飞行。） (4) jump (down) from a wall（从墙上跳下）

(5) Mary received a doll from her father. （玛丽从父亲那得到一个洋娃娃。） (6) He comes from France.（他来自法国。）

(7) Things have gone from bad to worse. （事情愈来愈糟了。）

The second one is to show the reason for making a judgment. Attention should be given to the instance below.

(8) You can tell a lot about a person from their handwriting. （根据一个人的笔迹可以了解很多关于他的情况。） (9) judge from appearance （从外表判断）

Thirdly, the English preposition “from” are capable of demonstrating the reason for something. Take the following sentence for example.

(10) She felt sick from tiredness. （她累得浑身不对劲。）

Additionally, the English preposition “from” also enables the users to distinguish between two people or things. Pay attention.

(11) Is Portuguese very different from Spanish? （葡萄牙语与西班牙语区别很

大吗？）

(12) I cannot tell one twin from the other. （我分辨不出双胞胎中谁是谁。） Moreover, the meaning of indicating the material that something is made of is included in the English entry “from”. With the following instance one can efficiently understand it.

(13) Steel is made from iron. （钢是由铁炼成的。）

The six function lies in that the English preposition “from” is able to express the meaning of exhibiting that something or somebody is separated or removed. Great importance should be attached to the instance concerned.

(14) The party was outsted from power after eighteen years. （该党执政十八年

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后被赶下台。）

The last but not the least one: to show how far apart two places are. For example: (15) 100 meters from the scene of the accident （离事故现场100米）

2.2 The Semantic Functions of Chinese Preposition “Cong”

When it comes to the semantic functions of the Chinese preposition “cong”, Lv Shuxiang(1994) introduces in his work Eight Hundred Words in Modern Chinese that there are mainly three semantic functions of it. They are as follows.

To begin with, the Chinese preposition “cong” is able to indicate the start of something. That is, the start of a place, a spelling of time, a resource, a scope and a development etc. The following examples will help us fully understand it.

(16) 小从北京回来 (17) 从早到晚 (18) 从头到尾 (19) 从无到有

Furthermore, the Chinese preposition “cong” never fails to demonstrate the path and place someone or something passes though. Pay attention to the sentences below.

(20) 从水路运输货物

The last aspect, the semantic function of the Chinese preposition “cong” also resides in that it can refer to the means by which a result is achieves or the fact follows or agrees with something. For instance:

(21) 一切从实际出发

3. A Cognitive Semantic Comparative Study

Through the comparison between the English entry “from” and the Chinese preposition “cong”, it is clear-cut that the semantic functions of the two prepositions have the characteristic of symmetry, namely, the first semantic function of “from” is on symmetry of the first and second semantic functions of “cong”, indicating the start of something; the second semantic function of “from” is symmetrical to the third one of “cong” with the fact concerned demonstrated. Meanwhile, the third to the seven semantic functions of the English entry “from” are of asymmetry to the Chinese

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preposition “cong” as well.

3.1 The Cognitive Comparison of the Symmetrical Semantic

Functions

First of all, from the semantic functions of the English preposition “from” together with the Chinese preposition “cong”, it cannot be more obvious that the two both indicate the start of something. From the perspective of cognition, either “from” or “cong” always denotes the change of the space relationship, it can be expressed by “beginning-route- objective”. The space condition before the change is the beginning. By the metaphorical cognition does one know that “from” and “cong” not only express the beginning of the space concept, but also show the notions of time or other scopes, though their specific meanings differ to some degree. For example:

The preposition “from” in the first example implies the meaning of “from some time on”. Introducing a time point, “From” implies the notions of moving and going ahead. Yet the Chinese preposition “cong” does not possess such an implication so that it must be added by “qi（起）” to show the march of time.

In example (4), the exact meaning of “from” is “from the above of something”, for the English entry “from” itself possesses the meaning of direction. However, the Chinese preposition “cong” can merely shows the space relationship and is unable to direct the exact space position.

“From” contains a sense of “from somebody” in the fifth instance. Since “from” never fails to indicate the space position, when “from” follows somebody it is endowed with a sense of space, while “cong” only signifies the change of space location and “naer（那儿）” is a necessary adding to it.

In example (6), “from” presents the meaning of “from somewhere”. Because “from” surely contains the message that remarks the dynamic states of moving and going ahead, there is no doubt that it owns a significance of dynamics or action; “cong”, on the contrary, possesses a sense of static state alone and if a dynamic meaning is expressed, “lai（来）” has to be used in stead.

Besides, the first semantic function of “from” signifying the start of something is

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of symmetry to the second semantic function of “cong” showing route or place of something likewise. Take the following two sentences for example.

(3) Bees are going from flower to flower.（蜜蜂正逐花飞行。） (20) 从水路运输货物

It is sensible that the passed route and place can still be considered to a sort of beginning, for the reason that this of semantic function of “cong” is extended from the semantic function of “the start of something”. The English and Chinese have their own distinguishable emphasis. The former emphasizes the aspect of “the start of something” and the latter attaches importance to the process of “passing”. “水路” in example twenty and “flower（花）” in example three can both been seen as the beginning of the route and place one passes as well as the beginning of the route and place that an action originates.

In addition, both the semantic functions of the English preposition “from” and the Chinese preposition “cong” are capable of denoting the basis. It can be embodied in example twenty-one and nine in English and Chinese respectively.

(9) judge from appearance （从外表判断） (21) 一切从实际出发

The “appearance” in example nine and “实际” in example twenty-one, both resources of mental bases, respectively are the bases and evidence of the verbs “judge” and “出发”.

“From” and “cong” can undoubtedly exhibit the change of the dynamic space relationship. According to the “beginning-route- objective” intentional schema, the change undergoes on condition that the “objective” is based on the “beginning”. If not, the change of the “objective” is surely obscure. Therefore, there is no denying that “from” and “cong” present the mental conceptual meaning “on the basis of something” through metaphors of the space conceptual meanings.

3.2 The Cognitive Comparison of the Asymmetrical Semantic

Functions

When it comes to the cognitive comparison of the asymmetrical semantic

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functions of the English preposition “from” and the Chinese preposition “cong”, plenty of attention should be drawn to the following five aspects.

First comes first, the English preposition “from” presents “the reason and motivation of something”, while in Chinese, “因为” and “由于” perform the same function. For example:

(10) She felt sick from tiredness. （她累得浑身不对劲。）

In terms of cognition, Yang Lili(1997) states that the abstract meaning “reason” is simply understood as “a resource”. Thus, the meaning of “reason” is extended from the prepositions remarking the resource movement such as of, off, from etc. “From” can exhibit the mental concept of “reason and motivation” via metaphors of space conceptual meanings. Yet, in Chinese, through metaphors of space conceptual meanings, the Chinese preposition “cong” just indicates the mental concept of “reason and motivation”.

Additionally, to reveal difference, in English “from” is exerted, but in Chinese “gen（跟），yu（与），he（和），tong（同）” are used accordingly. Pay attention to the sentences below.

(10)

Is Portuguese very different from Spanish? （葡萄牙语与西班牙语区别

很大吗？）

According to M Joseph, all words expressing a space relationship develop a metaphorical meaning and can be allocated with verbs. Due to the approaching principle, their semantic meanings are also affected. As a result, “from” is able to show the meaning of distance is just the case. The English preposition “from” can introduce the two targets of a comparison; however, the Chinese preposition “cong” does not own such function so as that the Chinese prepositions “gen（跟），yu（与），he（和），tong（同）” are of absolute necessity.

Moreover, when “from” is used to show “the material utilized”, the same effect can be achieved by the use of Chinese prepositions “yong（用）, you（由）”. For instance:

(13) Steel is made from iron. （钢是由铁炼成的。）

The semantic function of “from” remarking the meaning of “the material of

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something” is affected by its modifier verb “make（制造）” as well as its basic meaning. Take (13) for example. With the help of the “beginning-route- objective” schema, the beginning is “iron（铁）” and “steel（钢）” is the objective of the verb “make（生产，制造）” which can be regarded as the ending. The route of “from” can expresses the isolating from the source and moves on. The very semantic function of “from” is from the space conceptual metaphor to the material concept.

Fourthly, the English preposition “from” is able to signify prevention and stopping from dong something so that it denotes a sense of negation. Oppositely, the Chinese preposition “cong” under no circumstances has such usage. Pay attention to the typical example.

(22) What prevented/stopped/hindered you from coming? （何事阻止你前来？） Yang Lili(1997) tells that during the right position or moving orbit, anything that strays from the set point, line, surface and body derives from a negative meaning to some degree. Since “from” can present the departure of the origination of the space and further move on, it is endowed with a negative sense without any doubt.

Ultimately, the English preposition “from” never fails to show the distance two people or two places, the Chinese preposition “cong” often achieve such a goal by using “li（离）and ju （距）”.

(23) My home is 200 kilometers from Chengdu. （我家距离成都200公里。） “From” is capable of showing the departure of the origination of the space and further move on so the space that somebody or someone moves on equals the passed distance which can be expresses either by specific numbers or “yuan（远）” or “jin（近）”.

4．Conclusion

As we all know, preposition is one of the most active word classes with vital significance in both the English and Chinese languages. However, mastering preposition is not so easy. As is acclaimed by Fries (1945), t materials of most values are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner.

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An intensive understanding of the English Preposition “from” and Chinese

Preposition “Cong” is surely advantageous to our English study. The detailed analysis of the semantic functions of the English Preposition “from” and Chinese Preposition “Cong” together with the cognitive comparisons of the symmetries and asymmetries of their respective semantic functions enable us to master the English Preposition “from” better and apply theory to practice to use English efficiently and proficiently.

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References

Curme, George O. Syntax. PH.D., Essex:Verbatim, 1931.

Dai Weidong &. He Zhaoxiong. A New Concise Course on Linguistics for Students of English. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2002. Fries, C. C. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor: Wahr,1945.

Johnson,M, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning,Imagination and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987:78.

Quirk, R., G.. Leech, S. Greenbaum and J. Statvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Svartvik, J. English Prepositions in Applied Linguistics. In Klegraf ＆ Nehls (Eds). Essays on the English Language and Applied Linguistics on the Occasion of Gerhard Nickel’s 60th Birthday. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1988. Wehmeier, Sally. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Beijing: the Commercial Press, 1997.

吕叔湘，《现代汉语八百词(增订本)》，商务印书馆，2004。 王寅，《认知语法概论》，上海外语教育出版社，2006。

杨莉藜，“英语介词语义源流”，《外语研究》。1（1997），第43 页。

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